UNIVERSITÉ DE GENÈVE

INSTITUT UNIVERSITAIRE DE HAUTES ÉTUDES INTERNATIONALES

The transfer of dual-use outer space technologies :

confrontation or co-operation?

Thèse
présentée à l'Université de Genève
pour l'obtention du grade de Docteur en relations internationales

par

Péricles GASPARINI ALVES

(de Brésil)

Thèse n° HEI 612

Genève, 2001

The first of December had arrived! the fatal day! for, if the projectile were not discharged that very night at 10h. 46m.40s. p.m., more than eighteen years must roll by before the moon would again present herself under the same conditions of zenith and perigee.
The weather was magnificent. ...
The whole plain was covered with huts, cottages, and tents. Every nation under the sun was represented there; and every language might be heard spoken at the same time. It was a perfect Babel re-enacted. ...
The moment had arrived for saying 'Goodbye!' The scene was a touching one. ...
'Thirty-five!--thirty-six!--thirty-seven!--thirty-eight!--thirty-nine!--forty! Fire!!!'
Instantly Murchison pressed with his finger the key of the electric battery, restored the current of the fluid, and discharged the spark into the breach of the Columbiad.
An appalling, unearthly report followed instantly, such as can be compared to nothing whatever known, not even to the roar of thunder, or the blast of volcanic explosion! No words can convey the slightest idea of the terrific sound! An immense spout of fire shot up from the bowels of the earth as from a crater. The earth heaved up, and ...
'The projectile discharged by the Columbiad at Stones Hill has been detected ...12th December, at 8.47 pm., the moon having entered her last quarter. This projectile has not arrived at its destination, it has passed by the side; but sufficiently near to be retained by the lunar attraction. ...
'However, two hypotheses come here into our consideration.
'1. Either the attraction of the moon will end by drawing them into itself, and the travellers will attain their destination; or, --
'2. The projectile, following an immutable law, will continue to gravitate round the moon till the end of time.
'At some future time, our observations will be able to determine this point, but till then the experiment of the Gun Club can have no other result than to have provided our solar system with a new star.
Extracted from the Chapters
"Fire!" & "A New Star"
From the Earth to the Moo
Jules Verne
1865


      The decision to write a Thesis dissertation may not be too difficult to make, especially since obtaining a Doctoral's Degree at the end of a Thesis process is an encouraging stimulus. However, ideas are always easier to conceive and announce than to implement: writing a PhD. Thesis is no exception. Nonetheless, despite the many difficulties one may encounter in writing a dissertation, the level of satisfaction that may be enjoyed when arriving at the finish line is often greater than any obstacle encountered on the way. This has been my own experience.

      The road I took to write this manuscript was not always an easy one to ride on. I have encountered many obstacles which made this endeavour evermore difficult than it could have been otherwise. Some of these obstacles were predictable, since they were clearly in confrontation with my démarche. In retrospect, they have not been strong enough to stop me from moving mountains in a crusade of words and deeds. Other obstacles, however, were considerably more difficult to surmount for reasons which are not worth mentioning here. Fortunately, my efforts and determination were stronger than their opposition and the prospective reader shall judge if it was worthwhile the effort to finish this work.

      I would like to mention those who facilitated the completion of this work and my first thanks goes to those who played a fundamental role in supporting my original ideas and efforts. Namely, Ambassador Jayantha Dhanapala, then Director of the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) and at present UN Under-Secretary-General for Disarmament Affairs, who always supported my work and ceaselessly advised me to continue pursuing my studies. His successor, Mr Sverre Lodgaard, always hinted that I should pay more attention to potential contributions that confidence-and security-building measures could provide to the technology transfer debate; and Patricia Lewis, current UNIDIR Director, supported my efforts to complete this manuscript. Additionally, special thanks are also addressed to Professor Serge Sur, former Deputy Director of UNIDIR, for the long hours of conversation on space and related matters during my tenure at the Institute. His comments and support were very much appreciated.

      My sincere and warm thanks must go to Mr Curt Gasteyger, Emeritus Professor and Director of the Programme for Strategic Studies and International Security at the Graduate Institute of International Studies (IUHEI). Besides being one of my teachers at IUHEI and Director of my Thesis, Professor Gasteyger was also Director of two other works of mine at the Institute: a Memoire de Diplôme in 1988 and Memoire de diplome d'etude superior (DES) in 1993. It was therefore a pleasure and indeed an honour that he accepted to be the Director of my PhD. Every since the early stages of this Thesis, Professor Gasteyger provided me with important strategic advice as regards both the general line of thought of this work and issues of substance. I must note here that he did not always agree with my description or appreciation of events and ideas, but his doubts only encouraged me to better clarify my views. This feature of our student/professor relationship was quite challenging and extremely important to stimulate my thoughts. Additionally, I should also like to attest my gratitude for Professor Gasteyger's institutional and moral support throughout my many years of studies at IUHEI, without which I would probably not have been able to carry-out this work.

      I also thank all of those who assisted me in visiting various space and space-related factories and installations throughout the world, interview scientists and technicians on-site. This proved to be extremely useful since for me, as a student of international relations, I was neither trained nor exposed to detailed technical aspects of outer space technologies.

      The support of Véronique Marie Clément Alves, my wife, was also essential for me to face the challenge of writing a PhD Thesis and I thank her many hours of patience and active support for me to carry on this important but tedious work.

      Miss Riche Pannetti of Geneva deserves special mention in this acknowledgments. Miss Pannetti has assisted me making the necessary language corrections and indeed polishing the English to be appreciated in its own merit. She has not measured efforts in helping me and often exceeded regular working hours to finish one more sentence, paragraph, page, chapter... Unfortunately, for reasons of time, she did not have the opportunity to finish all the corrections. I also thank her for being a true friend at good and difficult moments.

      Last, but not least, while apologizing for those whom I may have unintentionally omitted, I should like to state that the responsibility of the statements in this Thesis are my own and neither of those whom I have mentioned nor of the Institution I work for.

      Péricles Gasparini Alves, Lima, 2001


ABL
Airborne Laser
ABM
Anti-Ballistic Missile
ACDA
Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (USA)
ACRS
Arms Control and Regional Security
ADCP
Air Defence Communication Platform
AEGIS
Ship-mounted weapons system
AG
Australian Group
AGRE
Active Geophysical Rocket Experiment
AHWG
Ad Hoc Working Group
ALCM
Air-Launched Cruise Missile
ALERT
Attack & Launch Early Reporting to Theatre
AMI
Active Microwave Instrument
ANSC
Alliance New Strategic Concept
ANSP
Australian National Space Programme
AN/TPS
Ground-based radar
AOC
Air Operations Centre
AR
Altimeter Radar
ARABSAT
Arab Corporation for Space Communication
ARGOS
Data Collecting System
ARR
Andøya Rocket Range (Norway)
ARTEMIS
Advanced Relay TEchnology MISsion (ESA)
ASAR
Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar
ASAT
Anti-Satellite weapons
ASB
Australian Space Board
ASBM
Air-to-Surface Ballistic Missile
ASI
Italian Space Agency
ASLV
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (India)
ASO
Australian Space Office
ATSR
Along-Track Scanning Radiometer
ATSR-M
Along-Track Scanning Radiometer & Microwave Sounder
AUSSAT
Australian Satellite
AWACS
Airborne Warning and Control System
Bae
British Aerospace
BEAR
Beam Experiment Aboard Rocket (SDI)
BM
Ballistic Missile
BM/C3
Battle Management/Command, Control, Communications
BMD
Ballistic Missile Defense
BMDO
Ballistic Missile Defense Organization
BMFT
Federal Ministry for Research and Technology (Germany)
BMI
Ballistic Missile Interception
BNSC
British National Space Centre
BPI
Boost-Phase Interceptor
BRAZILSAT
Brazilian Satellite
BSA
Brazilian Space Agency
BSTS
Boost Surveillance and Tracking Satellite
BTMs
Bilateral Technical Means
BUR
Bottom-Up Review
BW
Biological Weapons
BWC
Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention
C2
Command and Control
C3I
Communications, Command, Control and Intelligence
CALT
China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology
CASDN
National Defence Scientific Steering Committee (France)
CAST
Chinese Academy of Space Technology
CASTR
Chinese Academy of Space Technology Research
CBERS
China-Brazil Earth Resource Satellite
CBMs
Confidence-Building Measures
Cbo
Collision Bodies (ASAT weapons)
CCD
Charge Coupled Devise
CCI
Constellation Communications, Inc.
CD
Conference on Disarmament
CFE
Conventional Armed Forces in Europe
ChR
Chemical Rockets (ASAT weapons)
CIA
Central Intelligence Agency (USA)
CII
International Export Certificate (Brazil)
CIS
Commonwealth of Independent States
CLA
Alcântara Launch Centre
CLTC
China Satellite Launch and TT&C General
CM
Cruise Missile
CMC
Central Military Commission (Japan)
CNAD
Conference of National Armaments Directors
CNES
National Centre of Space Studies (France)
CNIE
National Commission of Space Research (Argentina)
CNR
National Research Council (Italy)
CNRS
National Centre of Scientific Research (France)
COBAE
Brazilian Commission for Space Activities
COCOM
Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Control
CONAE
National Commission of Space Activities (Argentina)
COPUOS
Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
COSTND
Commission of Science and Technology for National Defence
CPE
Circle Probable Error
CPI
Permanent Inter-ministerial Commission (Brazil)
CRC
Command Report Centre
CSA
Canadian Space Agency
CSBMs
Confidence- and Security-Building Measures
CSC
Central Special Committee (Japan)
CSCB
Clouds of Small Collision Bodies (ASAT weapons)
CSG
French Guyana Space Centre
CSMs
Security-Building Measures
CSS
Chinese Surface-to-Surface
CTA
Aerospace Technical Centre (Brazil)
CTBT
Comprehensive Test-Ban Treaty
CTS
Communications Technology Satellite (Canada)
CVE
Verification of Delivery Certificate (Brazil)
CW
Chemical Weapons
CWC
Chemical Weapons Convention
CZ
Chang Zheng
DAMs
Direct Ascending Missiles (ASAT weapons)
DARA
German Space Agency
DARPA
Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (USA)
DEDU
Development and Educational Communication Unit (India)
DLR
German Aerospace Research Establishment
DMA
Ministerial Armaments Delegation (France)
DoC
Department of Commerce (USA)
DoD
Department of Defense (USA)
DOS
Department of Space (India)
DoS
Department of State (USA)
DPI
Dual Pilot Implementation (US/USSR)
DPKOS
Department for Peace-keeping Operations
DPRK
Democratic People's Repubic of Korea
DRDL
Defence Research and Development Laboratory (India)
DRDO
Defence Research and Development Organization (India)
DRS
Data Relay Satellite (ESA)
DSP
Defense Support Programme
DST
Defence and Space Talks (US/Russia)
DT
Dual Trust
EAD
Extended Air Defence
EAGLE
Extended Airborne Global Launch Evaluator
EAR
Export Administration Regulation (USA)
ECCO
Equatorial Constellation Communications
ECOSAT
European Control by Satellite
ECS
European Communication Satellite (ESA)
ECSRC
Executive Committee of the Space Research Council (Pakistan)
ELDO
European Launcher Development Organization
ELINT
Electronic Intelligence
EMFA
Joint-Armed Forces Ministry (Brazil)
EmSC
Emerging Space-Competent State
ENCD
Eighteen-Nation Committee on Disarmament
EOSAT
Earth Observation Satellite Company
ERINT
Extended Range Intercept Technology
ERNO
ERNO Raumfahrttechnik GmbH (Germany)
ERS
Earth Resource Satellite
ERTS
Earth Resources Technology Satellite (USA)
ESA
European Space Agency
ESCS
Emerging Space-Competent State
ESL
European Small Launcher
ESMON
Earth-to-Space Monitoring Network
ESRO
European Space Research Organization
ETM
Enhanced Thematic Mapper (LANDSAT)
EtSC
Established Space-Competent State
EU
European Union
EURATOM
European Atomic Energy Community
EWS
Early Warning System
FOBS
Fractional Orbital Bombardment System
FOC
Faint Object Camera (Germany)
FSA
Free-Standing Agreement (US/USSR)
FTR
Flight Test Range
FY
Fiscal Year
GBI
Ground-Based Interceptor
GBR
Ground-Based Radar
GEM
Guidance Enhancement Missile
GEO
Geostationary Orbit
GEODSS
Electron-Optical Deep Space Surveillance System
GLBM
Ground-Launched Ballistic Missile
GLCM
Ground-Launched Cruise Missile
GOCNAE
Organizing Group of the National Commission for Space Activities (Brazil)
GP
Geneva Protocol
GPALSs
Global Protection Against Limited Strikes (USA)
GPS
Global Positioning Satellite
GPSCWG
Global Protection System Concept Working Group (US/Russian GPALs)
GSLV
Geostationary Satellite Launch Vehicle
GSTo
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit
HAWK
Homing All The Way Killer
HEU
Highly Enriched Uranium
HOPE
H-II Orbiting Plane (Japan)
HORUS
Hypersonic Orbital Research and Utilization System
HRV
High Resolution Visible (SPOT)
HTK
Hit-To-Kill
IAE
Institute for Space Activities (Brazil)
IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
IAG
Industrial Advisory Group
IAI
Israel Aircraft Industries
IAVAC
International Agency for the Verification of Arms Control Agreements
IBSS
Infrared Background Signature Survey (SDI)
ICBM
Inter-continental Ballistic Missile
ICJ
International Court of Justice
IDC
International Data Centre
IEC
International Export Certificate
IGMDP
Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (India)
IIAE
Instituto de Investigaciones Aeronáuticas y Espaciales (Argentina)
IIC
International Import Certificate
IMS
International Monitoring System
INC
International Notification Centre
INCSR
Indian National Committee for Space Research
INF
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (Treaty)
INLC
International Launch-Notification Centre
INPE
National Institute for Space Research (Brazil)
INSAT
Indian National Satellite
IRA
Israeli Space Agency
IRBM
Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile
IRIS
Indian Remote Sensing Satellite
IRIS
Italian Research Interim Stage
IR-MSS
Infra-Red Multispectral Scanners
IRS
Indian Remote-Sensing Satellite
ISAS
Institute of Space and Astronautical Science (Japan)
ISAS
International Satellite for Ionospheric Studies (Canada)
ISMA
International Satellite Monitoring Agency (French proposal)
ISRO
Indian Space Research Organization
ISSA
International Space Science Academy
ISTS
Institute for Space and Terrestrial Science (Canada)
ITA
Technological Institute of Aeronautics (Brazil)
ITU
International Telecommunication Union
JAET
Japanese Antarctica Expedition Team
JEM
Japanese Experiment Module
JMA
Japan Meteorological Agency
JSLC
Jiuguan Satellite Launch Centre (China)
JTAGS
Joint Tactical Ground Station
KEK
Kinetic Energy Kill
KSC
Kagoshima Space Centre (Japan)
LANDSAT
Land use satellite (NASA)
Laser
Light amplification by simulated emission of radiation
LEAP
Light Exo-Atmospheric Projectile
LEO
Low Earth Orbit
LIGHTSATs
Light Satellites
LISS
Liner Imaging Self-Scanner
LittleLEO
Little Launcher of Low Earth Orbit (UK)
LLV
Lockheed Launch Vehicle
LM
Long March
LPSC
Liquid Propulsion Space Centre (India)
LPSC
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (India)
MAAI
Ministry of Aeronautics and Astronautics Industry
MAc
Mass Accelerators (ASAT weapons)
MAD
Mutual Assured Destruction
MAI
Ministry of Aerospace Industry (China)
MARECS
Maritime European Communications Satellite (ESA)
MBB
Deutsche Aerospace (Germany)
MCB
Manoeuvrable Collision Bodies (ASAT weapons)
MDAHG
Missile Defence Ad Hoc Group
Mdr
Mass Drivers (ASAT weapons)
MEADS
Medium Extended Air Defence System
MECB
Brazilian Complete Space Mission
MERCOSUR
Southern Common Market
MIC
Ministry of Industry and Commerce (Israel)
MIRV
Multiple Independently-targeted Re-entry Vehicle
MIT
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MITI
Ministry of International Trade and Industry (Japan)
MMRS
Multi Spectral-Medium-Resolutions Scanner
MOA
Memorandum of Agreement
MoD
Ministry of Defence (Israel)
MOE
Ministry of Education (Japan)
MOPT
Ministry of Post and Telecommunications (Japan)
MOS
Marine Observation Satellite (Japan)
MOST
Ministry of Post and Telecommunications (Japan)
MOT
Ministry of Transport (Japan)
MOU
Memorandum of Understanding
MPLMs
Mini Pressurized Logistics Modules (Italy)
MRV
Mutual Re-entry Vehicle
MS
Multispectral
MSDS
Marconi Space and Defence Systems (UK)
MSS
Marconi Space Systems (UK)
MSS
Mobile Servicing System (Canada)
MSS
Multispectral Scanners
MTCR
Missile Technology Control Regime
MTMs
Multilateral Technical Means
MTOPS
Million Theoretical Operations Per Second
MURST
Ministry for the Universities and Science and Technology (Italy)
NAC
North Atlantic Council
NACC
North Atlantic Cooperation Council
NADC
NATO Air Defence Committee
NAL
National Aerospace Laboratory (Japan)
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space Agency (USA)
NASDA
National Space Development Agency (Japan)
NASP
National Aero-Space Plane (USA)
NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NDRE
Norwegian Defense Research Establishment
NGSV
Argentinian New Generation Space Vehicle
NIPR
National Institute for Polar Research (Japan)
NMD
National Missile Defense (USA)
NMTs
National Technical Means of Verification
NNRMS
National Natural Resources Management System (India)
NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (USA)
NORAD
North American Aerospace Defense Command (USA)
NORSAR
Norwegian Seismic Array
NPA
Non-Proliferation Agency (US Senate bill)
NPS
Nuclear Power Source
NPT
Non-Proliferation Treaty
NPWG
Non-Proliferation Working Group (US/Russian GPALs)
NRC
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USA)
NRSA
National Remote Sensing Agency (India)
NRSC
National Remote Sensing Centre (China)
NSC
Norwegian Space Centre
NSG
Nuclear Suppliers Group
NSP
National Space Plan (Italy)
NST
Nuclear and Space Talks (US/Russia)
NTC
Noshiro Testing Centre (Japan)
NTMs
National Technical Means
NTNF
Royal Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research
NTWD
Navy Theatre-Wide Defence
NUPI
Norwegian Institute of International Affairs
NWFZ
Nuclear Weapon-Free Zone
OECD
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OPANAL
Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean
OREX
Orbital Re-entry Experiment
OS
Outer Space
OSCE
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
OST
Outer Space Treaty
OTH-B
Over-The-Horizon-Backscatters
PAC
PATRIOT Advanced Capability
PAN
Panchromatic
PARCS
Perimeter Acquisition Radar Attack Characterization System
PAROS
Ad Hoc Committee on the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space Committee
PAXSAT
Canadian Peace Satellite
PfP
Partnership for Peace
PFS
Pre-Feasibility Study
PLO
Palestinian Liberation Organization
PLS
Personnel Launch System
PNDAE
Brazilian National Policy on the Development of Space Activities
POC
Point of Contact
PRL
Physical Research Laboratory (India)
PSLV
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (India)
PTBT
Partial Test-Ban Treaty
QRP
Quick Reaction Programme
R&D
Research & Development
RADARSAT
Radar Satellite (Canada)
RAMOS
Russian American Observation Satellites
RECOSI
Regional Cooperation for Satellite Imagery
RoK
Republic of Korea
ROTEX
Robotics Technology Experiment (Germany)
RPM
Retro Propulsion Module (Germany)
RS-1/2/3
Rohini Satellite-1, 2 or 3 (India)
RSMA
Regional Satellite Monitoring Agency
SAC
Space Application Centre (India)
SAC
Space Activities Commission (Japan)
SAC-B
Argentinean Scientific Applications Satellite-B
SAD
Space Activity Division (Sweden)
SALT
Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
SAM
Surface-to-Air Missile
SAR
Synthetic Aperture Radar
SBC
Sanriku Balloon Centre (Japan)
SBIRS
Space-Based Infrared System
SBM
Security-Building Measures
SBT
Sea-Bed Treaty
SCD
Data Collecting Satellite (Brazil)
SDI
Strategic Defense Initiative (USA)
SDIO
Strategic Defence Initiative Organization
SDP
Space Development Programme (Japan)
SEI
Space Exploration Initiative (USA)
SEREB
Society for the Study and the Realization of Ballistic Vehicles
SFU
Space Flyer Unit (Japan)
SHAPE
Supreme Headquarters of Allied Powers in Europe
SHAR
Sriharikota Space Centre (India)
SIPA
Satellite Image Processing Agency (France)
SIPRI
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
SL
Space Launcher
SLBM
Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile
SLV
Satellite Launch Vehicle
Smi
Space Mines (ASAT weapons)
SMTS
Space and Missile Tracking System
SNAE
National System of Space Activities (Brazil)
SNSB
Swedish National Space Board
SOI
Statement of Intent
SPAS
Shuttle Pallet Satellite (Germany)
SPOT
Earth Observation Satellite (France)
SR
Sounding Rocket
SRAM
Short-Range Attack Missile
SRC
Space Research Council (Pakistan)
SROSS
Stretched Rohini Satellite Series (India)
SSC
Space Surveillance Centre (USA)
SSC
Swedish Space Corporation
SSOD
United Nations Special Sessions on Disarmament
SSR
Remote Sensing of the Earth (Brazil)
SSV
Single Stage Version
STA
Science and Technology Agency (Japan)
STARS
Strategic Tactical Airborne Range System
START
Strategic Arms Reduction Talks Treaty
STFNP
Special Task Force on Non-Proliferation (US Senate bill)
STRV
Space Test Research Vehicle
STS
Space Transportation System
SUPARCO
Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (Pakistan)
SYRACUSE
Système de Radio-Communication Utilisant un Satellite (France)
TACC
Tactical Air Command Center
TACDAR
Tactical Data & Related Applications
TACS
Theatre Air Control System
TBMD
Theater Ballistic Missile Defense
TCWG
Technology Co-operation Working Group (US/Russian GPALs)
TD
Theatre Defence
TEL
Light Space Transport (Brazil)
THAAD
Theater High Altitude Area Defence
TM
Thematic Mapper
TMD
Theater Missile Defense
TNCD
Ten-Nation Committee on Disarmament
TOAM
Tactical Air Operations Module
TRANSARM
Ad Hoc Committee on Transparency in Armaments International
TSS
Tromsø Satellite Station (Norway)
TT&C
Tracking, Telemetry, and Control
TT&T
Telemetry, Telecommand & Tracking
UAV
Unmanned Air Vehicle
UDSC
Usuda Deep Space Centre (Japan)
UNDC
United Nations Disarmament Commission
UNDDA
United Nations Department for Disarmament Affairs
UNIDIR
United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research
UNITRACE
International Trajectography Centre (France)
UNOOA
United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs
UNPO
United Nations Peace Operation
UNSCOM
United Nations Special Commission
UOES
User Operational Evaluation System
USSR
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Uvs
Unmanned Vehicles
VAP
Vehicle Evaluation Pay-load
VLS
Satellite Launching Vehicle
VNIR
Visible and Near Infra-Red
VSAT
Very Small Aperture Terminals
VSSC
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (India)
WA
Wassenaar Arrangement
WEU
Western European Union
WEUSC
Western European Union Satellite Centre
WFI
Wide-Field Imager
WMD
Weapons of Mass Destruction
WPO
Warsaw Pact Organization
WSO
World Space Organization
XSLC
Xichang Satellite Launch Centre (China)
()
Unverified data
[]
Doubtful estimation
..
Data unavailable or inapplicable

Guidelines : International guidelines may differ from a multilateral agreement in as much as they may consist of statement of intentions by a group of states, as well as they may or may not be part and parcel of a legal binding instrument.


[Suivant]